Key Data of Satellite Communication

A concise index of satellite-comm data, with pointers to deeper references.

Orbits

Satellites operate in various orbits depending on coverage, latency, and mission needs. LEO is common for low-latency internet (e.g., Starlink), while GEO supports broadcast and continuous regional service¹².

Type	Altitude	Notes	Uses
LEO	160–2 000 km	Low latency; dense constellations	Earth obs; Starlink; Iridium; IoT
MEO	2 000–35 786 km	Higher latency; radiation zone	GNSS (GPS, Galileo, GLONASS, BeiDou)
GEO	~35 786 km	Fixed view; continuous coverage	Broadcast TV; SATCOM; meteo sats
GSO	~35 786 km	Inclined orbit; same period as Earth	Custom coverage zones (e.g. India)
HEO	500 km–>50 000 km	Long apogee dwell; elliptical	Molniya/Tundra; Arctic, surveillance

Frequency Bands

Different frequency bands are used for satellite communications depending on throughput needs and environmental resistance. Lower bands like L/C offer resilience; higher bands like Ka enable broadband but suffer rain fade³⁴.

Band	Range (GHz)	Antenna Size	Rain Fade	Typical Use
L	1–2	Very large	Very low	GNSS, mobile SATCOM2
S	2–4	Large	Low	Mobile, telemetry, tracking
C	3.4–7.0	Large	Low	TV backhaul, maritime, enterprise
X	7–11.2	Medium	Medium	Military SATCOM
Ku	12–18	Smaller	Med-High	DTH TV, VSAT, aircraft broadband
Ka	17.3–40	Smallest	High	HTS, 5G backhaul, space-to-ground laser links

Notable Systems

Recent missions illustrate trends toward higher data rates, miniaturization, and optical links. TBIRD and LCRD showcase compact laser comms payloads achieving hundreds of Gbps⁵⁶.

Mission	Year / Agency	Rate	Mass	Power	λ (nm) / Modulation
SOTA	2014 / NICT	1–10 Mbps	~6 kg	1.7–30 W	976/800/1549 nm; OOK
TBIRD	2022 / MIT Lincoln	up to 200 Gbps	<3 kg	100 W	~1550 nm; QPSK
LCRD	2021 / NASA	up to 622 Mbps	~300 kg	>400 W	Optical comm relay
Artemis	2001 / ESA	50 Mbps	~3100 kg	>2000 W	Optical + RF hybrid

Satellites

This overview outlines the main types of satellites, highlighting the objectives and examples. They are categorized based on their specific applications and the services they provide.

Types	Objective	Example
Communication Satellites	Facilitate the transmission of data, television, telephony, and high-speed internet access. Reduce the need for terrestrial infrastructure.	Intelsat: Provides global telecommunications services with a vast network of satellites in GEO.
Earth Observation Satellites	Collecting environmental images and data for monitoring changes in the Earth’s surface, predicting weather, and conducting environmental impact studies.	Sentinel (Copernicus program): Captures multispectral data for monitoring climate change and environmental disasters.
Navigation Satellites	Designed for astronomical studies, climate analysis, and exploration of physical phenomena in space.	Hubble Space Telescope: An astronomical observatory placed into LEO to record images in different wavelengths.
Military Satellites	Carry out surveillance, espionage, secure communications, and tactical support activities.	Milstar: Jamming-resistant satellite uses for military communications.
Nanosatellites and Cubesats	A compact solution for space mission. Widely adapted in scientific, educational and commercial applications.	SBUDNIC (SATCAT 52774): Addressing the long term, existential problem of space junk.
Commercial and Government Satellites	This covers all the satellites mentioned above.	---

Space Cybersecurity

Securing space assets is vital given long lifespans, limited patching, and critical functions. Standards like SPD-5 and NIST SP 800-53 guide resilience and controls⁷⁸.

Framework	Scope
SPD-5 & CISA	U.S. cybersecurity principles for space
SPARTA	Threat-vulnerability matrix for space TTPs
NIST SP 800-53	Controls baseline for information systems
Zero Trust (ZTA)	Ground-space-ground security architecture

Terminology: The following terms are used in the context of satellite communications and cybersecurity.

Term	Definition
Transmission security (TRANSEC)	Controls preventing interception, deception, or analysis of signal characteristics (e.g. modulation, timing) to protect confidentiality and integrity.
Emanating Spurious Transmissions (TEMPEST)	Protecting against data theft through the interception of electromagnetic radiation

Glossary of Terms

Short definitions of common satellite-comm acronyms:

• TT&C: Telemetry, Tracking & Command
• VSAT: Very Small Aperture Terminal (Ku/C bands)
• HTS: High Throughput Satellite (often Ka band)
• ISL: Inter-Satellite Link (RF or optical)
• Ground Segment: Gateways, NOCs, mission control

References

Footnotes

1. Catalog of Earth Satellite Orbits – NASA Earth Observatory (2009)
    https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/OrbitsCatalog ↩

2. Satellite frequency bands – European Space Agency (2022)
    https://www.esa.int/Applications/Connectivity_and_Secure_Communications/Satellite_frequency_bands ↩ ↩²

3. Satellite Communications, 3rd ed. – Wiley (2019)
    https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Satellite%2BCommunications%2C%2B3rd%2BEdition-p-9781119482178 ↩

4. “LEO and GEO Satellites: Differences, Advantages and Challenges in Satellite Connectivity” – Interseas Connect (2024)
    https://interseas.es/en/leo-and-geo-satellites-differences-advantages-and-challenges-in-satellite-connectivity/ ↩

5. M. 1036: Frequency arrangements for IMT (IMT-2020) – ITU (2023)
    https://www.itu.int/rec/R-REC-M.1036/en ↩

6. “TBIRD: TeraByte InfraRed Delivery” – NASA NTRS (2022)
    https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20220012887/downloads/TBIRD_v5_AT.pdf ↩

7. Space Policy Directive-5: Cybersecurity Principles for Space Systems – The White House (2020)
    https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2020/06/04/space-policy-directive-5/ ↩

8. Space Systems Cybersecurity Guide – CISA (2021)
    https://www.cisa.gov/publication/space-systems-cybersecurity-guide ↩