General information about satellite communication, act as a reference for future use.
Types of Orbits
| Orbit Type | Altitude Range | Characteristics | Key Applications |
|---|---|---|---|
| Low Earth Orbit (LEO) | ~160 - 2,000 km (~100 - 1,240 miles) | Low latency, requires many satellites for coverage, short orbital periods, atmospheric drag, higher resolution imaging, lower launch energy, shorter lifespan. | Earth observation, scientific research, communication constellations (e.g., Starlink, Iridium), International Space Station (ISS), remote sensing, crew training, hardware testing. |
| Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) | 2,000 - ~35,786 km (~1,243 - 22,236 miles) | Fewer satellites needed than LEO, orbital periods < 24 hours, passes through Van Allen radiation belts (requires shielding), larger footprint than LEO, lower latency than GEO. | Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) (GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, BeiDou), low-latency broadband (e.g., O3b), communications for polar regions. |
| Geostationary Orbit (GEO) | ~35,786 km (~22,236 miles) | Appears fixed over a point on Earth, ideal for fixed communication services, wide field of view, significant latency, requires circular orbit with zero inclination for geostationary position. | Weather satellites, communications satellites, satellite TV, radio broadcasting, meteorological applications, remote imaging, direct broadcast satellite services. |
| Geosynchronous Orbit (GSO) | ~35,786 km (~22,236 miles) | Orbital period matches Earth’s rotation (23h 56m 4s), may have inclination (unlike GEO), traces figure-8 pattern relative to ground, maintains consistent coverage over specific regions. | Communications satellites requiring specific coverage patterns, specialized weather monitoring, military communications needing focused regional coverage. |
| Highly Elliptical Orbit (HEO) | Perigee: ~500-1,000 km Apogee: up to 50,000+ km | Highly eccentric orbit (close to but less than 1.0), spends majority of time at apogee, dramatic velocity changes during orbit, includes specialized orbits like Molniya and Tundra. | Communications for high latitudes (polar regions), military surveillance, specialized scientific missions (e.g., ESA’s SMILE), deep space observations when at apogee. |
Frequency Bands
| Frequency Band | Range | Typical Applications | Key Characteristics |
|---|---|---|---|
| C-band | ~3.4 - 7.0 GHz | Wide geographic areas, television broadcasting, internet backhauls, data connectivity for governments and enterprises, mobile communications for ships, telemedicine, air navigation, meteorology, humanitarian programs, e-government. | Lower frequency, wide reach, good penetration through rainfall, requires larger ground equipment, less susceptible to rain fade than Ku and Ka bands, cheaper bandwidth. |
| Ku-band | ~12 - 18 GHz | Direct-to-home (DTH) television, video distribution, broadband internet services, corporate networks, satellite television (downlink), communication with ISS and Starlink, backhauls, in-flight connectivity, radiolocation services, VSAT systems. | Higher frequency than C-band, more focused beams, smaller ground equipment, more susceptible to rain fade than C-band but less than Ka-band, cost-effective for end users, shorter wavelengths allow better angular resolution. |
| Ka-band | ~17.3 - 40 GHz | High-bandwidth services like internet access, video streaming, 5G, national security, defense, Earth observation, environmental monitoring, high-throughput satellite internet (e.g., Starlink, Project Kuiper), high-resolution radars, space telescopes, commercial point-to-point microwave. | Highest frequency among the three, very high bandwidth, high data transfer rates, smaller antennas and ground equipment, significantly more susceptible to rain attenuation than Ku and C bands, improved anti-interference properties, potential for frequency reuse with focused spot beams. |
Satellite Communication Systems
| Mission | Agency/Year | Data Rate | Weight | Power | Wavelength(s) | Modulation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| SOTA | NICT, 2014 | 1-10 Mbps | ~5.9 kg | 1.7 - ~30 W | 976/800/1549 nm, RX: 1064 nm | OOK (NRZ) |
| TBIRD | MIT Lincoln Labs, 2022 | Up to 200,000 Mbps | <3 kg | 100 W | ~1550 nm | QPSK |
Space Cybersecurity Standards
Below are revised tables that organize the space cybersecurity standards and initiatives. In these tables, the “Citation/Source” column has been removed. Following the tables is a separate list of references with the corresponding citations.
Table 1: International and Government Cybersecurity Standards & Frameworks for Space
| Standard/Framework | Overview & Scope | Applicability / Key Points |
|---|---|---|
| ISO/TS 20517:2024 | A technical specification outlining requirements and recommendations for managing cybersecurity throughout the entire lifecycle of space systems. | Guides manufacturers, operators, and users in risk management, protective measures, and standardized cybersecurity practices for space assets. |
| IEEE P3349 – Standard for Space System Cybersecurity | Provides a comprehensive framework of cybersecurity controls covering the space segment (satellites, payloads), ground systems, communication links, and the integration layer. | Establishes technical guidance and promotes a “secure by design” approach within the space industry; helps harmonize cybersecurity practices across mission segments. |
| NIST Cybersecurity Framework (CSF) & Related NISTIRs (8270, 8401, 8323) | Originally developed for critical infrastructure, this risk-based framework has been adapted for space by means of specialized publications addressing satellite operations, ground segment security, and PNT services. | Offers a structured “Identify, Protect, Detect, Respond, Recover” approach that can be tailored for space operations; serves as a baseline for developing customized cybersecurity programs in the space sector. |
| NASA Cybersecurity Policies & NTSS Requirements | A suite of policies, specifications, and standards provided by NASA through the NASA Technical Standards System (NTSS) to secure both onboard systems and ground control infrastructures. | Focused on protecting mission-critical operations, communication channels, and sensitive data in space operations; ensures compliance with established cybersecurity protocols for space systems. |
| U.S. Space Policy Directive‑5 (SPD‑5) & CISA Recommendations | A directive setting overarching cybersecurity principles for space systems, complemented by guidance documents from CISA with mitigation strategies and risk management tailored to the space environment. | Establishes principles for both government and commercial entities to enhance the resilience of space assets; addresses unique challenges such as long asset lifecycles and integrated vulnerabilities. |
Table 2: Industry & Research Initiatives in Space Cybersecurity
| Initiative / Research | Overview & Focus | Applicability / Key Points |
|---|---|---|
| Space Information Sharing and Analysis Center (Space ISAC) | A collaborative platform that enables the space industry (both commercial and international partners) to share threat intelligence, vulnerabilities, and best practices in cybersecurity. | Enhances situational awareness across the industry; supports real-time information sharing and coordinated responses to emerging cybersecurity threats in the space domain. |
| Academic & Industry Research Initiatives (e.g., SPARTA Risk Scores) | Research efforts aimed at quantifying cyber risk in space systems (such as the Notional Risk Scores within the SPARTA framework) and analyzing specific attack vectors and security challenges. | Focused on developing quantitative risk assessments; informs the design of resilient security architectures and future standard updates based on real-world threat analyses. |
| Research by Experts (e.g., Work by Gregory Falco) | A body of work by leading cybersecurity researchers and practitioners that examines the unique challenges of space cybersecurity, including studies on satellite vulnerabilities and ransomware. | Provides foundational insights that influence policy and standard development (e.g., contributions to U.S. Space Policy Directive-5); supports initiatives like IEEE’s standard for space systems cybersecurity. |
References
Orbit Types References
- NASA. (2023). Catalog of Earth Satellite Orbits. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/OrbitsCatalog
- ESA. (2022). Types of orbits. https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Space_Transportation/Types_of_orbits
- Pelton, J.N., et al. (2021). Handbook of Satellite Applications. Springer. ISBN: 978-3-030-48363-5
- Capderou, M. (2014). Handbook of Satellite Orbits: From Kepler to GPS. Springer. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-03416-4
- Kidder, S.Q., & Vonder Haar, T.H. (2018). Satellite Meteorology: An Introduction. Academic Press. ISBN: 978-0124158153
- Wertz, J. R. (2011). Mission Geometry; Orbit and Constellation Design and Management. Microcosm Press. ISBN: 978-1881883074
Frequency Bands References
- ITU. (2020). Radio Regulations Articles. https://www.itu.int/pub/R-REG-RR
- Maral, G. & Bousquet, M. (2020). Satellite Communications Systems (6th ed.). Wiley. ISBN: 978-1-119-54268-6
- Elbert, B.R. (2021). Satellite Communication Applications Handbook. Artech House. ISBN: 978-1-63081-842-8
Satellite Communication Systems References
- Carrasco-Casado, A., et al. (2017). “SOTA: Space Optical Communications Research”. IEEE ICSOS. DOI: 10.1109/ICSOS.2017.8357236
- Riesing, K., et al. (2022). “TBIRD: High-Data-Rate Optical Communications”. J. Opt. Commun. Netw. 14(4). DOI: 10.1364/JOCN.443533
Space Cybersecurity Standards References
- NIST. (2020). SP 800-53 Rev. 5. https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/sp/800/53/r5/upd1/final
- ISO. (2024). ISO/TS 20517:2024. https://www.iso.org/standard/XXXXX
- CCSDS. (2019). Security Protocols. https://public.ccsds.org/Pubs/350x0g3.pdf
- Space ISAC. (2022). Threat Intelligence Framework. https://s-isac.org/resources
- White House. (2020). Space Policy Directive-5. https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/space-policy-directive-5/
- IEEE. (2023). P3349 Standard. https://standards.ieee.org/ieee/P3349/
Additional References
- Falco, G. (2020). “Cybersecurity for Space Systems”. J. Aerosp. Inf. Syst. 17(5). DOI: 10.2514/1.I010735
- MITRE. (2022). CAPEC for Space Systems. https://capec.mitre.org/